Fulling Cloth & Tentering | Practicalities in Mill & Field

Sep. 23, 2024

Manufacture - woollen cloth-making

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The Woollen Industry...

The production of woollen cloth is intricate, reflecting various manufacturing practices and economic factors. The relationships among wool suppliers, spinners, clothiers, fullers, cloth dressers, and merchants evolved differently throughout the country, influenced by regional historical developments and specialized practices in cloth-making districts.

In a simplified overview, during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, southern manufacturing was predominantly driven by large-scale capital master manufacturers who owned both the wool and the finished cloth. They employed workers across diverse settings—domestic households, mills, and factories. Conversely, in the northern regions, clothiers with limited resources typically purchased their wool and processed it at home predominantly with family members alongside a few skilled cloth workers. Once the cloth was fulled by millers - which involved treating it to increase solidity and texture - it was often dyed and sold to merchants at cloth halls and markets. The fabric was often 'undressed' (or 'balk') right off the tenters, leaving the merchant with the responsibility of finishing touch-ups.

From the fourteenth century onward, the cloth industry emerged as a crucial source of employment and had a notable impact on the kingdom's economy, earning the designation of 'the great staple trade of the kingdom'.

Why tenter?

Tentering served a vital function in the production of 'woollen cloth', which features a weave of fine carded wool fibers. This process involved stretching and drying the fabric primarily after scouring and fulling, the latter being a fundamental step that transformed the loosely woven cloth into a durable, visually appealing textile devoid of visible webbing. It played a critical role in preparing the fabric for the following processes of raising the nap and shearing, which ensured a soft texture and attractive appearance. During the finishing stages, the cloth may need to revisit the tenters multiple times, and it was also essential for drying fabrics post-dyeing.

Not all woollen textiles underwent milling and tentering; for example, worsted fabric, crafted from long-staple wool, was meticulously spun and woven to achieve a smooth surface without visible fibers. The focus was on achieving a finely textured cloth with clear patterns—fulling was typically not required for this type, as it risked dulling the colors and detracting from the aesthetic appeal. An age-old saying illustrates this fact: Worsted was perfected in the loom, 'woollen cloth' in the finishing. The processing nature of the yarn was also critical; for instance, worsted yarn exhibited different spinning and twisting techniques compared to woollen counterparts.

Fulling contributed to creating a denser, more insulated fabric with increased strength and a certain degree of water resistance. This involved a vigorous, prolonged wet process utilizing soaps, scouring agents, and textiles like fullers' earth. The fulling stocks facilitated mechanical compression, agitation, and rolling of the fabric over several hours, driving the yarns closer together to produce a felted effect. This process generated heat, which was essential to the overall operation, resulting in shrinkage and uneven distortion—particularly, the middle of the fabric would shrink more significantly than the edges.

After fulling, the tentering process not only dried the cloth but also enabled precise adjustments to achieve the required dimensions and align patterned cloth correctly, counteracting any misalignments caused by varying shrinkage.

Field tenters exclusively located outdoors, either individually or in long seams arrayed in views, were positioned south-facing for optimal sun exposure, generally situated on sloped fields or mill yards. In urban settings, they might be arranged on vacant plots by canals or roads. When set on sloped terrain, tenters were ingeniously elevated on small revetments, creating level platforms that followed the landscape's contours—features still visible in contemporary days. Field tenters began to fade from the scene as the indoor tentering systems gained popularity from the mid-nineteenth century onward, as factories adopted heated covered platforms, often referred to as stoves, and tentering machines. Nevertheless, outdoor tenters continued functioning within the blanket industry for many years.

Shrinkage - why, and how much?

Weaving creates tension in wool fibers, which are further stressed when wet cloth is stretched and dried on tenters, forming a temporary 'set'. These tensions irreversibly release when the cloth undergoes thorough wetting (relaxation shrinkage), contracting to stable dimensions. Traditionally, cloth was soaked before being precisely cut to its legal dimensions required during certain time periods. Additionally, woollen cloth irreversibly shrinks when subjected to mechanical agitation during milling or fulling. This shrinkage mainly arises from the scales on wool fibers, which exhibit varying friction towards adjacent fibers based on movement direction. The accumulation of multiple compressions in the fulling stocks forces fibers closer together, causing entanglement, leading them to migrate towards the root and remaining trapped due to limitations on elastic recovery, a bit like a ratchet effect, which ultimately results in the fabric's contraction. Influential factors such as fiber flexibility, yarn structure, weave density, temperature, pH levels, and the type of lubricant utilized can significantly alter the extent of felting, its progression, and the overall shrinkage magnitude.

Woollen cloth took numerous forms and evolved over time through varying fibers and manufacturing methods driven by commercial and aesthetic motivations. Consequently, the extent of shrinkage experienced post-fulling differed greatly. For instance, Bischoff (Ref. 1) provided an average estimate of a width reduction by 40-45% and a length reduction of about 50%. Brooks (Ref. 2) observed that Wiltshire broadcloths, once processed, doth shrink from what it was set in the Loom, to what is finished, about one half of its Breadth, and about one third of its Length. Norfolk coarse broadcloth was fashioned to anticipate a 36 percent width reduction post-milling to satisfy regulatory width standards (Ref. 3). According to Miles' review for a Royal Commission regarding the state of hand-loom weavers in Gloucestershire, broadcloth measuring 3 yards wide and approximately 54 yards in length before processing resulted in reductions of 42% and 26% in size post-milling (Ref. 4). Through modern methodologies, Brearley and Iredale noted a typical length reduction of around 10% and a width reduction of 20% with a 'standard woollen finish' (Ref. 5).

Weather

Joseph Holroyd, a cloth factor in Halifax servicing clients in London and Flanders (via Hull), often voiced weather-related challenges in his correspondence with clients in the 1700s (Ref. 6). For instance, a Mr. Dorpere, interested in acquiring ninety 'Bayes' (worsted warp and woollen weft), received a note stating 'I hope to send them towards Leeds tomorrow if a fair day; there are 7 or 8 pieces on the Tenters, we have had much rain which has hindered the drying of them' along with, 'the bays are yet on the tenters; as soon as dry and ready you shall have an Invoice of them'. Likewise, to Mr. Bollinger, he mentioned, 'we have had very bad drying'.

Clothier Samuel Hill also distributed cloth to London and Hull for Antwerp; in his letters to customers in 1785, he lamented, 'we have had so much rain and Snow' and to another individual stated, 'as soon as we have Sun and fine weather, I shall have 25 Samuels I believe the Best I ever made'. To Mr. Verbeck, he confided that, 'I here enclose you Invoice of 1 Bale Kerseys which I would have sent sooner if possible; however, we have had excessive rain and snow upon these Hills, making it challenging to dry anything. This Bale is not yet ready'.

In another letter from 1786, John Brearley of Wakefield, a cloth frizzer, noted in his memorandum, 'In and around Wakefield it is primarily dry weather often leading to better drying on the tenters during the winter season than in Huddersfield or Saddleworth or anywhere near Rochdale. Sometimes it could dry two days a week when the aforementioned places struggled to dry even one, creating scarcity in Huddersfield's market' (Ref. 7).

Brearley persisted in acknowledging the drying difficulties faced during winter on field tenters; he even sketched a design for adjustable indoor tenters suitable for various fabrics: 'Now you may Fix 4 or 5 of these tenters in a Room to Dry them, with 4 or 5 Great iron pans in the room upside down so kindle a Fire under them and the smoke will flow up a tunnel into your Chimney; it must have an iron Door for your pans'. Ensuring prompt cloth drying could secure a competitive edge in cloth markets compared to peers grappling with damp pieces. Indoor heating facilities emerged only in Yorkshire during the early 19th century; however, Brearley was contemplating indoor solutions during his time (Ref. 8, Ref. 9).

Avoiding over-drying cloth, such as leaving it in direct sunlight, was essential, particularly if further processing was anticipated, as it imparted an undesirable glazed quality. Cloth was sometimes strategically 'dewed' by remaining overnight to absorb atmospheric moisture, or it could be laid directly on the ground to soak up minimal water, enhancing finishing processes and improving the cloth's overall feel ('handle') before sale.

Wet-houses

A 'wet-house' refers to a structure located near isolated tenter fields designed for temporary cloth storage prior to tenting or as shelter during inclement weather. Such buildings often also housed winches and ladders used in the drying process. Although very few of these structures have been formally documented, one of the finest remaining examples exists in Lancashire at Stubbins Vale Mill, near Ramsbottom. Evaluating nineteenth-century OS large-scale maps reveals buildings on isolated commercial tenter fields, such as at the head of steep-sided valleys that caught sunlight and breeze, while mills rested at the valley's base, benefiting from the water's flow. The wet-house enabled quick access and convenient storage for drying cloth, especially when weather conditions were unpredictable.

The wet-house at Stubbins Vale, shaded on a photograph taken in the 1970s, was originally a single storey, later converted to two storeys shortly after the photograph was taken.

During this timeframe, Porritts and Spencer's Stubbins Vale Mill near Ramsbottom produced lappings (utilizing linen warp and worsted weft) and specialized blankets, both used within the calico printing industry for wrapping engraved rollers. The wet-house, built in the mid-1800s, is now owned by the National Trust and was referred to as an 'eye-catcher' with its original flagpole. Situated at an elevation of 35 meters above the mill overlooking the Irwell valley, it stands gracefully at the edge of the elevated tenter fields.

Located just three kilometers north was Sunnybank Mill, originally under the same ownership, which also boasted a similarly built wet-house around the same time, located around 21 meters above the mill on the edge of another elevated tenter field. By 1890, all tentering had transitioned indoors into a long, enclosed drying space. This wet-house's tower was later demolished in 1921 (Information on the two mills courtesy of John Simpson, Helmshore).

Left - The remarkable castellated Stubbins Vale Mill wet-house. Right - Sunnybank Mill wet-house in the 1970s (shaded), showcasing the original tenter-field at the top of the image. Courtesy John Simpson, Helmshore.

The tenter-fields at Greenbooth Mill (left, SD) and Ashworth Mill (right, SD), both located in Rochdale, possessed buildings near the racks, which were likely wet-houses. Both fields stood elevated above their respective mills on a plateau. The maps are representations of the First Edition, surveyed in 1847/48.

Greenbooth Mill now lies beneath a reservoir, yet its tenter-field, sitting 38 meters above the mill, remains as pasture today, well above the water level. There is no remaining evidence of the actual tenter's existence. A few stone remnants have been incorporated into a low wall previously where the wet-house was placed, but it was demolished before 1980. The mill also hosted an indoor drying house measuring 60 yards long and 7.5 yards wide (Leeds Intelligencer, 23 Jan 1890).

Indoor drying - stoves

In 1807, a local festival was celebrated at Dockwray Hall Mills in Kendal (currently in Cumbria) in recognition of the local manufacturers' accomplishments at the Exposition Universelle in Paris, commemorated by an attendance of eight hundred people. An entertaining play was composed by a dyer, Thomas Thwaites, highlighting the speed advantages brought by newly-introduced 'stoving' over traditional field tentering methods for drying cloth. The play depicted a time-sensitive cloth production request for delivery in London the very next day:

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'steam's well up for t'stove, or t'll nivver be done. If it had to be tentered on't fell, for aught I see it mud be a month afore it were dry, instead of four or five hours in't stove'. [Harking back to the good old days though], '... its baith pleasenter and healthier to have a good blow on t'fell, t'feel t'sun warm on one's back ... than to stick forever between two walls and a steam pipe.' [Fine in summer, but in winter snow ...], 'setting unjoint tenters ... fingers starved [extremely cold] ... till we were right fain [pleased] to get home.'

Air dry-houses, which emerged in the late eighteenth century, featured ventilation-supported wall openings and roofs but did not widely spread across woollen mills. They persisted into the nineteenth century primarily for drying purposes of linen (Ref. 11). A preserved air-drying house (now repurposed as offices) exists at Cricklepit Mill in Exeter, still retaining tenterhooks embedded in some beams. Covered sheds for tenter frames served several of the woollen mills located on the Isle of Man, although only a single decayed example remains (Ref. 12).

Heated 'dry-houses' were elongated structures designed to accommodate full lengths of cloth, with minimal windows and roof vents, often built as multi-storey buildings. These emerged in the early nineteenth century; at Benjamin Gott's Bean Ing mill in Leeds, a daily log remarked, 'P ieces were tentered in the Top Room of the Dryhouse on Monday Evening, Decr 5th, - this being the first time of its being used.' (Ref. 13).

Indoor tentering at Wikes Mill in Bury, Lancashire in 1890 showcased left - the mounting of woollen cloth used in the paper industry on 'double tenters', with fabric mounted on both sides of the frame over the 'saddle' at the top, while the right image presents the fully mounted cloth. The heavy fabric was tightly secured within a long shed using a 'crane' (a winch). Courtesy Ken Howarth, Heritage Photo Archive.

Stove tenter house, Dublin

By the early nineteenth century, approximately 18,000 to 22,000 individuals in Dublin were supported by the weaving industry, with poor weather profoundly impacting cloth production, contributing to poverty levels; thus, tentering processes faced significant interruptions. A collective appeal (known as a 'Memorial') was made by weavers and primary clothiers to the then Earl of Meath, Lord Mayor, and Aldermen, advocating for the construction of a 'large stone tenter-house' (Ref. 14).

'In the winter season, when rains, snows, and frosts set in, they are all thrown idle; neither the wool, warps, nor cloths can then be dried... Hunger and cold are succeeded by several disorders, which break up their little families, and many of them are obliged to seek relief in public hospitals, infirmaries, and the streets'.

The need was supported and subsequently approved by the city authorities. However, numerous delays hampered implementation; ultimately, local businessman and philanthropist Thomas Pleasants offered full funding to initiate work on April 14, 1807, incurring over £14,000. The building incorporated four 'stoves' located in the basement, iron grating systems to disperse heat, three floors equipped with tenters on the first two, while the final floor was allocated for wool and warps.

'Tenter House with grounds, Dublin, Ireland', illustrated engraving by B. Brunton, 1809. Courtesy of the Wellcome Collection; Public Domain Mark, Creative Commons. Cropped.

From September to December 1808, pieces of cloth, warps, and 11,875 kg of wool were sized, dried, tentered, and finished—this stove tenting establishment 'caused want and idleness to disappear, along with all their associated miseries'. Eventually, hand weaving began to decline, and by 1873, the building was repurposed as an overnight refuge for homeless women and children (Ref. 15). This structure remains standing in Dublin today.

Provision of tenters

Tenters were commonly traded and rented, akin to various manufacturing machinery. For example, John and Thomas Clark of Trowbridge, a firm established in 1758 for medley and Spanish merino cloth production alongside wool dying operations, employed spinners and weavers across vast terrains. In 1764, they possessed a single tenter measuring 42 yards for Cassimeres (twilled cloth, printed or dyed), but also rented additional tenters. During the years 1801-1806, they secured a new 44.5 yard rack for £13, alongside purchasing three more from alternative vendors. In 1808, an iron shed was acquired for £27 10s, alongside four second-hand units for £28 that included additional support and installation costs (Ref. 16).

Clothiers

Domestic clothiers in Yorkshire either provided or rented their tenters for drying fulled cloth before marketing. John Dickson and his spouse Mary from Lepton, Huddersfield, authorized their clothier tenant, Richard Hanson of Wakefield, to install and utilize two pairs of tenters outside the dwelling. He could proceed as long as the area designated for the tenters did not exceed a 20 x 20 yard square and remained within 20 yards from his residence. The 'consideration' for this arrangement was valued at £100 alongside a nominal annual rent (Ref. 17).

Common land and inclosure

Some municipal authorities facilitated space for the erection of tenters. Unenclosed common land was readily exploited for tentering and associated wool processes such as warp stretching and drying. Typically, these encroachments occurred without official authorization. The enclosure of commons adjoining burgeoning wool manufacturing locales like Leeds raised concerns for clothiers regarding continued access to these spaces. Cloth manufacturing was recognized as a significant employer, propelling economic stability—considerations acknowledged by more progressive commissioners and landowners. Lands around Leeds, such as Armley, Wortley, and Bramley, served as sites for tentering activities (Ref. 18).

The Inclosure Acts pertaining to Armley and Wortley near Leeds exemplify this, contributing to present-day public benefits for recreation opportunities. The Act to enclose Armley was legislated on June 25, 1793, with the Award awarded in 1794. The Commissioner acknowledged clothiers' needs by delineating, 'I do hereby set out and allot eight acres and half of the said commons and waste land... which are as near as can be to the several [clothiers'] cottages... erected upon or adjoining the said Common or Waste Grounds and which shall... for ever hereafter remain open and unenclosed... setting up and using of Tenters, stretchers for Warp Wool, Hedges for the spreading and drying of wool or for any other use...' [subsequently listing 11 allotments of varying acreages].

The Award also stipulated, 'no roads, footpaths, properties, trees, or other obstruction may be on or near the Tenters' Ground' (Ref. 19).

Some of these grounds still serve as open spaces today; The Armley Common Right Trust manages six such sites, with the main site being Armley Moor.

The Armley tithe apportionment from February 21, 1839 (IR 29/43/17) indicates that 'Armley Township Churchwardens and Overseers of' owned eight 'Privilege Grounds' designated for tentering activities (plus facilities for Pinfold, School & Yard, School Close, and an Allotment). Presently, five of these areas remain open in urban Armley, while three have been built upon.

Another notable transaction in Armley involved the 'Conveyance of a parcel of Land at Armley for the purpose of Tenter Ground' (WYL744/12), dated February 25, 1815. This involved an agreement between Benjamin Gott (a prominent woollen industrialist and former Mayor of Leeds) and the Ministry, Chapelwardens, and Overseers of the Poor of the township detailing an arrangement for land allocation for tentering uses.

A similar arrangement occurred within Wortley (Inclosure Act 1810, Award 1812), with some opposition present regarding the enclosure. In the Leeds Times (April 25, 1810), 'Freeholders and inhabitants' sought to reach an agreement on the encroachment. Ultimately, freeholders prevailed, understanding that resistance would incur substantial expenses for inhabitants to contest in Parliament. A settlement was reached acknowledging clothiers' needs; the Act proceeded, but about three acres of nearly 40 acres were to remain open for tentering ('and other such Uses and Purposes'). The locations and respective sizes were agreed upon, with trustees overseeing the parceling details. The outcome for 'tentering Woollen Cloths, drying Webs and spreading Pieces thereon' was documented by the Leeds Mercury on January 30, 1811.

The 'Privilege' plots designated for the Armley and Wortley Inclosure awards have been mapped onto contemporary 1:25,000 charts and are available for public access.